Anaximenes was the third Greek philosopher in canonical lists of successions, and like his predecessors Thales and Anaximander, an inhabitant of Miletus. According to the very meager sources on his life he flourished in the mid 6th century BCE and died around 528. He was said to be the student of Anaximander, and like him he sought to give a quasi-scientific explanation of the world.
He is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. This claim contrasts with the view of Thales that water was the source, and with the view of Anaximander that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff. He seems to have held that at one time everything was air. In one region the air was acted upon by natural forces to be transformed into other materials which came together into an organized world, in which we now live. Air can be thought of as a kind of neutral stuff that is found everywhere, and is hence available to participate in physical processes. It is also associated with the soul-sometimes portrayed as the breath of life in early Greek literature-and hence with life and intelligence. Anaximenes may have thought of air as capable of directing its own development to some extent as our soul controls our body (DK13B2 in the Diels-Kranz collection of Presocratic sources). Accordingly, he ascribed to air divine attributes.
Anaximenes provides an interesting account of natural change:
[Air] differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these. (DK13A5)
Using two contrary processes of rarefaction and condensation, Anaximenes explains how air is part of a series of changes from fire to air to wind to cloud to water to earth to stones. Matter can travel this path by being condensed, or the reverse path from stones to fire by being successively more rarefied. Anaximenes provides a crude kind of empirical support by appealing to a simple experiment: if one blows on one's hand with the mouth relaxed, the air is hot; if one blows with pursed lips, the air is cold (DK13B1). Hence, we allegedly see that rarity is correlated with heat, as in fire, density with coldness, as in the denser stuffs. Anaximenes is the first thinker we know of who provides a theory of change and bolsters it with observations. Anaximander had described a sequence of changes that a portion of the boundless underwent to form the different stuffs of the world. But he gave no scientific reason for its changing, nor did he describe any mechanism by which it might come about. By contrast, Anaximenes uses a process familiar from everyday experience to account for material change. He also seems to have referred to the process of felting, by which wool is compressed to make felt. This industrial process provides a model of how one stuff can take on new properties when it is compacted.
Anaximenes, like Anaximander, gives an account of how our world came to be out of previously existing matter. According to Anaximenes earth was formed from air by a felting process. It is a flat disk. From evaporations from the earth fiery bodies arise which come to be the heavenly bodies. The earth floats on a cushion of air. The heavenly bodies, or at least the sun and the moon, seem also be flat bodies that float on streams of air. On one account the heaven is like a felt cap that turns around the head. The stars may be fixed to this surface like nails. In another account the stars are like fiery leaves floating on air (DK13A14). The sun does not travel under the earth but circles around it, and is hidden by the higher parts of the earth at night.
Like Anaximander, Anaximenes uses his principles to account for various natural phenomena. Lightning and thunder result from wind breaking out of clouds; rainbows are the result of the rays of the sun falling on clouds; earthquakes are caused by the cracking of the earth when it dries out after being moistened by rains. He gives an essentially correct account of hail as frozen rainwater.
Most commentators, following Aristotle, understand Anaximenes' theory of change as presupposing Material Monism. According to this theory there is only one substance, in this case air, from which the whole world and everything in it are composed. The several stuffs: wind, cloud, water, etc., are only modifications of the real substance that is always and everywhere present. There is no independent evidence to support this interpretation, which seems to require metaphysical concepts of form and matter, substratum and accident that are too advanced for this period. Anaximenes may have supposed that the stuffs simply change into one another in order.
Anaximenes' notion of successive change of matter by rarefaction and condensation was influential in later theories. It is developed by Heraclitus (DK22B31) and criticized by Parmenides (DK28B8.23-24, 47-48). His general theory of how the materials of the world arise is adopted by Anaxagoras (DK59B16), even though the latter has a very different theory of matter. Both Melissus (DK30B8.3) and Plato (Timaeus 49b-c) see Anaximenes' theory as providing a common-sense explanation of change. Diogenes of Apollonia makes air the basis of his explicitly monistic theory. The Hippocratic treatise On Breaths uses air as the central concept in a theory of diseases. By providing cosmological accounts with a theory of change Anaximenes removed them from the realm of mere speculation and made them, at least in conception, scientific theories capable of testing.
Suggestions for Further Reading
There are no monographs on Anaximenes in English. Articles on him are sometimes rather specialized in nature. A number of chapters in books on the Presocratics are helpful.
Barnes, Jonathan. The Presocratic Philosophers. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1 vol. edn.), 1982. Ch. 3.
Gives a philosophically rich defense of the standard interpretation of Anaximenes.
Bicknell, P. J. "Anaximenes' Astronomy." Acta Classica 12: 53-85.
An interesting reconstruction of the conflicting reports on Anaximenes' astronomy.
Classen, C. Joachim. "Anaximander and Anaximenes: The Earliest Greek Theories of Change?" Phronesis 22: 89-102.
This article provides a good assessment of one of Anaximenes' major contributions.
Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge U. Pr., 1962. 115-40.
A good introduction to Anaximenes' thought.
Kirk, G. S., J. E. Raven and M. Schofield. The Presocratic Philosophers. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983. Ch. 4.
A careful analysis of the texts of Anaximenes.
Wöhrle, Georg. Anaximenes aus Milet. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993.
This brief edition adds four new testimonies to the evidence about Anaximenes and challenges the standard interpretation. It is useful as a counterbalance to the received view, though I think particular criticisms it makes of that view are wrong.
He is best known for his doctrine that air is the source of all things. This claim contrasts with the view of Thales that water was the source, and with the view of Anaximander that all things came from an unspecified boundless stuff. He seems to have held that at one time everything was air. In one region the air was acted upon by natural forces to be transformed into other materials which came together into an organized world, in which we now live. Air can be thought of as a kind of neutral stuff that is found everywhere, and is hence available to participate in physical processes. It is also associated with the soul-sometimes portrayed as the breath of life in early Greek literature-and hence with life and intelligence. Anaximenes may have thought of air as capable of directing its own development to some extent as our soul controls our body (DK13B2 in the Diels-Kranz collection of Presocratic sources). Accordingly, he ascribed to air divine attributes.
Anaximenes provides an interesting account of natural change:
[Air] differs in essence in accordance with its rarity or density. When it is thinned it becomes fire, while when it is condensed it becomes wind, then cloud, when still more condensed it becomes water, then earth, then stones. Everything else comes from these. (DK13A5)
Using two contrary processes of rarefaction and condensation, Anaximenes explains how air is part of a series of changes from fire to air to wind to cloud to water to earth to stones. Matter can travel this path by being condensed, or the reverse path from stones to fire by being successively more rarefied. Anaximenes provides a crude kind of empirical support by appealing to a simple experiment: if one blows on one's hand with the mouth relaxed, the air is hot; if one blows with pursed lips, the air is cold (DK13B1). Hence, we allegedly see that rarity is correlated with heat, as in fire, density with coldness, as in the denser stuffs. Anaximenes is the first thinker we know of who provides a theory of change and bolsters it with observations. Anaximander had described a sequence of changes that a portion of the boundless underwent to form the different stuffs of the world. But he gave no scientific reason for its changing, nor did he describe any mechanism by which it might come about. By contrast, Anaximenes uses a process familiar from everyday experience to account for material change. He also seems to have referred to the process of felting, by which wool is compressed to make felt. This industrial process provides a model of how one stuff can take on new properties when it is compacted.
Anaximenes, like Anaximander, gives an account of how our world came to be out of previously existing matter. According to Anaximenes earth was formed from air by a felting process. It is a flat disk. From evaporations from the earth fiery bodies arise which come to be the heavenly bodies. The earth floats on a cushion of air. The heavenly bodies, or at least the sun and the moon, seem also be flat bodies that float on streams of air. On one account the heaven is like a felt cap that turns around the head. The stars may be fixed to this surface like nails. In another account the stars are like fiery leaves floating on air (DK13A14). The sun does not travel under the earth but circles around it, and is hidden by the higher parts of the earth at night.
Like Anaximander, Anaximenes uses his principles to account for various natural phenomena. Lightning and thunder result from wind breaking out of clouds; rainbows are the result of the rays of the sun falling on clouds; earthquakes are caused by the cracking of the earth when it dries out after being moistened by rains. He gives an essentially correct account of hail as frozen rainwater.
Most commentators, following Aristotle, understand Anaximenes' theory of change as presupposing Material Monism. According to this theory there is only one substance, in this case air, from which the whole world and everything in it are composed. The several stuffs: wind, cloud, water, etc., are only modifications of the real substance that is always and everywhere present. There is no independent evidence to support this interpretation, which seems to require metaphysical concepts of form and matter, substratum and accident that are too advanced for this period. Anaximenes may have supposed that the stuffs simply change into one another in order.
Anaximenes' notion of successive change of matter by rarefaction and condensation was influential in later theories. It is developed by Heraclitus (DK22B31) and criticized by Parmenides (DK28B8.23-24, 47-48). His general theory of how the materials of the world arise is adopted by Anaxagoras (DK59B16), even though the latter has a very different theory of matter. Both Melissus (DK30B8.3) and Plato (Timaeus 49b-c) see Anaximenes' theory as providing a common-sense explanation of change. Diogenes of Apollonia makes air the basis of his explicitly monistic theory. The Hippocratic treatise On Breaths uses air as the central concept in a theory of diseases. By providing cosmological accounts with a theory of change Anaximenes removed them from the realm of mere speculation and made them, at least in conception, scientific theories capable of testing.
Suggestions for Further Reading
There are no monographs on Anaximenes in English. Articles on him are sometimes rather specialized in nature. A number of chapters in books on the Presocratics are helpful.
Barnes, Jonathan. The Presocratic Philosophers. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (1 vol. edn.), 1982. Ch. 3.
Gives a philosophically rich defense of the standard interpretation of Anaximenes.
Bicknell, P. J. "Anaximenes' Astronomy." Acta Classica 12: 53-85.
An interesting reconstruction of the conflicting reports on Anaximenes' astronomy.
Classen, C. Joachim. "Anaximander and Anaximenes: The Earliest Greek Theories of Change?" Phronesis 22: 89-102.
This article provides a good assessment of one of Anaximenes' major contributions.
Guthrie, W. K. C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge U. Pr., 1962. 115-40.
A good introduction to Anaximenes' thought.
Kirk, G. S., J. E. Raven and M. Schofield. The Presocratic Philosophers. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1983. Ch. 4.
A careful analysis of the texts of Anaximenes.
Wöhrle, Georg. Anaximenes aus Milet. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993.
This brief edition adds four new testimonies to the evidence about Anaximenes and challenges the standard interpretation. It is useful as a counterbalance to the received view, though I think particular criticisms it makes of that view are wrong.
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